The Others-Movie Review Essay Example

The Others-Movie Review Paper Nurul Hazwani Bt Hatta M12L THE OTHERS Movie Review The Others is one of the psychological horror movies that impress me with its good story plot and suspense elements. It was written, directed and scored by Spanish director Alejandro Amenabar, starring Nicole Kidman and Christopher Eccleston. It is inspired partly by the 1898 novella The Turn of the Screw. Grace Stewart (Nicole Kidman) is a Catholic mother who lives with her two small children in a remote country house in the British Crown Dependency of Jersey, in the immediate aftermath of World War II. The war was playing vital role in being contributing factor that cause depression in Grace. The stress is the triggering element that cause phychology disorder in her. The children, Anne and Nicholas have an uncommon disease, xeroderma pigmentosa, characterized by photosensitivity, so their lives are structured around a series of complex rules designed to protect them from inadvertent exposure to sunlight. The new arrival of three servants at the house — an aging nanny and servant named Mrs. Bertha Mills ,an elderly gardener named Mr. Edmund Tuttle, and a young mute girl named Lydia — coincides with a number of odd events, and Grace begins to fear that they are not alone. Anne draws pictures of four people: a man, a woman, a boy called Victor, and an old woman, all of whom she says she has seen in the house. A piano is heard from inside a locked room when no one is inside. Grace finds and examines a book of the dead, which shows mourning portraits taken in the 19th century of recently deceased corpses. We will write a custom essay sample on The Others-Movie Review specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Others-Movie Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Others-Movie Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer I was so shocked when the doors which Grace believes to have been closed are found mysteriously ajar. Grace tries hunting down the intruders with a shotgun but cannot find them. She scolds her daughter for believing in ghosts — until she hears them herself. Eventually, convincing herself that something unholy is in the house, she runs out in the fog to get the local priest to bless the house. Meanwhile, the servants, led by Mrs. Mills, are clearly up to something of their own. The gardener buries a headstone under autumn leaves, and Mrs. Mills listens faithfully to Annes allegations against her mother. Outside, Grace loses herself in the heavy fog, but she miraculously discovers her husband Charles who she thought had been killed in the war, and brings him back to the house. Charles is distant during the one day he spends in the house, and Mrs. Mills is heard telling Mr. Tuttle, I do not think he knows where he is. Grace later sees an old woman dressed up like her daughter. Grace says, You are not my daughter! and attacks her. However, she finds that she has actually attacked her daughter instead. Anne refuses to be near her mother afterward, while Grace swears she saw the old woman. Mrs. Mills tells Anne that she too has seen the people, but they cannot yet tell the mother because Grace will not accept what she is not ready for. Charles is stunned when Anne tells him the things her mother did to her. He says he must leave for the front and disappears again. After Charles leaves, Anne continues to see things, including Victors whole family and the old woman. Grace breaks down to Mrs. Mills, who claims that sometimes the world of the dead gets mixed up with the world of the living. At last, I know that actually, it is Grace’s family who is dead, not the intruders. The intruders are the living people who bought the house after the death of Grace’s family. Grace and her children cannot accept the fact that they are dead. Grace may have some mental illness when she killed her children with pillow and then kill herself with a rifle. She was suffering from stress as she was feeling isolated and lonely as her husband didn’t come back from war. I love the suspense element and the twisting plot story. At first, I thought that the intruders are the bad guy, but actually Grace’s family is the one that possess the house and reluctant to leave their mansion even when they are dead. From this story,I learn that it is important to control our emotion and be patient in facing any difficulties in our life to lead a healthy and happy life.

How to Write a Great Book Report

How to Write a Great Book Report One assignment has lasted the test of time, uniting generations of students in a common learning exercise:  book reports. While many students dread these assignments, book reports can help students learn how to interpret texts and gain a broader understanding of the world around them.  Well-written books can open your eyes to new experiences, people, places, and life situations that you may have never thought about before. In turn, a book report is a tool that allows you, the reader, to demonstrate that you have understood all the nuances of the text you just read. What'sa Book Report? In the broadest terms, a book report  describes and summarizes a work of fiction or nonfiction. It sometimes- but not always- includes a personal evaluation of the text. In general, regardless of grade level, a book report will include an introductory paragraph that shares the title of the book and its author.  Students will often develop their own opinions about the underlying meaning of the texts through developing thesis statements, typically presented in the opening of a book report,  and then using examples from the text and interpretations to support those statements.  Ã‚   Before You Start Writing A good book report will address a specific question or point of view and back up this topic with specific examples, in the form of symbols and themes. These steps will help you identify and incorporate those important elements. It shouldnt be too hard to do, provided youre prepared, and you can expect to spend, on average, 3-4 days working on the assignment. Check out these tips to ensure youre successful: Have an objective in mind.  This  is the main point you want to present or the question you plan to answer in your report.  Ã‚  Keep supplies on hand when you read.  This is  very  important. Keep sticky-note flags, pen, and paper nearby as you read. If youre reading an eBook, make sure you know how to use the annotation function of your app/program.  Ã‚  Read the book.  Seems obvious, but too many students try to take a shortcut and simply read summaries or watch movies, but you often miss important details that can make or break your book report.Pay attention to detail.  Keep an eye out for clues that the author has provided in the form of symbolism. These will indicate some important point that supports the overall theme. For instance, a spot of blood on the floor, a quick glance, a nervous habit, an impulsive action, a repetitive action... These are worth noting.Use your sticky flags to mark pages.  When you run into  clues or interesting passages, mark the page by placing the sticky note at the beginning of the relevant line.  Ã‚   Look for themes.  As you read, you should begin to see an emerging theme. On a notepad, write down some notes on how you came to determine the theme.Develop a rough outline.  By the time you finish  reading the book,  you will have recorded several possible themes or approaches to your objective. Review your notes and find points that  you can back up with good examples (symbols).   Your Book Report Introduction The start  of your book report provides an opportunity to make a solid introduction to the material and your own personal assessment of the work. You should try to write a strong introductory paragraph  that grabs your readers attention. Somewhere in your first paragraph, you should also state the books title  and the authors name. High school-level papers should include publication information as well as brief statements about the books angle, the genre, the theme, and a hint about the writers feelings in the introduction. First Paragraph Example: Middle School Level: The Red Badge of Courage, by Stephen Crane, is a book about a young man growing up during the Civil War. Henry Fleming is the main character of the book. As Henry watches and experiences the tragic events of the war, he grows up and changes his attitudes about life. First Paragraph Example: High School Level: Can you identify one experience that changed your entire view of the world around you? Henry Fleming, the main character in The Red Badge of Courage, begins his life-changing adventure as a naive young man, eager to experience the glory of war. He soon faces the truth about life, war, and his own self-identity on the battlefield, however. The Red Badge of Courage, by Stephen Crane, is a coming of age novel published by D. Appleton and Company in 1895, about thirty years after the Civil War ended. In this book, the author reveals the ugliness of war and examines its relationship to the pain of growing up. The Body of the Book Report Before you get started on the body of the report, take a few minutes to jot down some helpful information by considering the following points. Did you enjoy the book?Was it well written?What was the genre?(fiction) Which characters play important roles that relate to the overall theme?Did you notice reoccurring symbols?Is this book a part of a series?(nonfiction) Can you identify the writers thesis?What is the writing style?Did you notice a tone?Was there an obvious slant or bias? In the body of your book report, you will use your notes to guide you through an extended summary of the book. You will weave your own thoughts and impressions into the plot summary. As you review the text, youll want to focus on key moments in the storyline and relate them to the perceived theme of the book, and how the characters and setting all bring the details together. Youll want to be sure that you discuss the plot, any examples of conflict that you encounter, and how the story resolves itself. It can be helpful to use strong quotes from the book to enhance your writing.   The Conclusion As you lead to your final paragraph, consider some additional impressions and opinions: Was the ending satisfactory (for fiction)?Was the thesis supported by strong evidence (for nonfiction)?What interesting or notable facts do you know about the author?Would you recommend this book? Conclude your report with a paragraph or two that covers these additional points. Some teachers prefer that you re-state the name and author of the book in the concluding paragraph. As always, consult your specific assignment guide or ask your teacher if you have questions about what is expected of you.

Piager's Cognitive Developmental Theory Research Paper

Piager's Cognitive Developmental Theory - Research Paper Example The sensorimotor stage is representative of the early-aged youth, from birth to age two. It is a period where the child begins to recognize basic mobility and hand-eye coordination as well as a variety of foundational mental representations accumulated through vision, touch, and motor conditioning. The preoperational stage is a period where more formal logic is developed, ranging between age two through seven, in which the child maintains rather egocentric behaviors and attitudes. It is in this stage where the youth maintains centric-style thinking, which is placing all of their focus and attention on a singular characteristic rather than thinking abstractly about various alternatives. Centration in this stage will often have a child stating that the volume of liquid in two similar beakers, when poured into a taller and more slender container, remains the same even though there was a transition. Thus, broader logic has not yet been developed. The next stage is the concrete operationa l stage, appropriate for youths between seven and 12 years of age, where conservation is now understood, comprehending concepts of reversibility, the ability to classify objects based on common shapes and sizes, and the youth begins to reject their previous egocentric thought. The final stage is formal operations, occurring between the ages of 12 to late adolescence. This stage involves maintaining an understanding of abstract moral and ethical principles, where the child is able to reasonably determine potential consequences to an action, and where some egocentric behaviors and attitudes re-emerge as a product of identify formation. Having provided a brief summation of the different stages, the one particular stage of development appropriate for more intensive examination is the concrete operational stage, the stage where egocentric behavior begins to diminish and where elementary logic begins to surface. In order to facilitate more effective learning, a child in the concrete opera tional stage of development requires a tactical approach to learning, using hands-on methodologies to gain attention and comprehension. Shaikh (2003) suggests that youths in this stage must have recurrent trial-and-error in experimentation where knowledge findings are repeated with instructor-generated feedback in order to retain learning from experiential lessons. Shaikh (2003) further emphasizes that lectures as a tool for imparting knowledge will be ineffective during this stage of development due to the rationalization processes within the child between seven and twelve. The child in the concrete operational stage gains more curiosity about the world around them as they are able to establish logical patterns and shape distinctions with the shedding of their self-motivated thought patterns. Their curiosity will demand hands-on applications to learn complex concepts such as mathematics, thus students being taught in the classroom will require dice, algebra blocks, spinners, or oth er appropriate experiential tools (Burns & Silbey, 2000). Why is this? Students have not yet developed the verbal capabilities to express their newfound logic and reasoning (e.g. classification and conservation), thus they require more fundamental learning tools to fill this void in self-expression (Santrock, 2008). Thus, to properly

Power Distance in Saudi Arabia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Power Distance in Saudi Arabia - Essay Example Your residents have no strong political tone of voice, as well as the guidelines of the territory tends to be chose with the king and no one from the common people can interfere in the decision making or choosing the leader.. From the family members, the particular folks tend to be near the top of the particular picking order, while the youngsters as well as youth tend to be in the bottom. This is the system of Saudi Arabia where power is strictly with the king and family and is passed on to the children. There are different aspects of this power distance and very important one which is prominent in Saudi Arabia is gender difference. Being conservative country females are not given any major rights and power is restricted to men. Saudi Arabia is a very modern country if we talk about technology and resources but it scores really low when it comes to equality and power distribution so on the basis of social equality and justice Saudi Arabia is far

Sir Richard Hawkins Essay Example for Free

Sir Richard Hawkins Essay Sir Richard Hawkins was an explorer, soldier and privateer. He followed in his father footsteps and became a well-respected mariner. He explored his whole live and never stopped looking for adventure out on the open see. We began with his live on land, then his maritime days and last end up at why he was such an important explorer and sea farer. Sir Richard Hawkins life began in Plymouth around 1562 to Katherine and John Hawkins. His dad was a famous Elizabethan explorer. Richard Hawkins never went to school. He grew up in the company of many mariners, including his father, William Hawkins, his uncle and Sir Walter Raleigh, learning about the sea and its trade. When he was 22 he went on his first voyages with his uncle, William, to Brazil. This was the start of Richards Hawkins expeditions and life on see. Richard Hawkins married Judith (Dame) Hele and had 6 children. The first, born in Deptford in 1592 was Judith, and then came Margret in 1603, John in1604, Richard, Johan 1607 and Mary. He bought the house and manor of Poole and Slapton located between Dartmouth and Start Point. This is where you spent the years of 1603 to 1605 writing a book called â€Å"Observations on His Voyage into the South Seas, AD 1593†. Richard at the age of 58 he continued his need for adventure by leading and expedition to the Mediterranean against the Barbary or North African pirates. Richard died on April 17, 1622 at the age of 60 in Slapton England. Richard Hawkins had many adventures at sea and continued to for as long as he lived. While on his trip to Brazil with his uncle, he captained one ship and was second command of another. They arrived back in Plymouth in November of 1582 with a bounty of around 8000.000 crowns. His next captaining job was of the Duck which carried of 240 guns of Spain’s and forced Spain to concentrate on strengthening their colonies defense. 2 years later he was captain his own ship called the Swallow, which he led against the Spanish Armada along with lending two more of his own ships. This was a battle lead by the Spanish against the British because of the protestant rule of Elizabeth I and piracies by British ships against the Spanish trade. It is said that Richard’s ship was the most damage. In 1590 Richard sailed with his father, who commanded a fleet of 6 ships to sail along the Spanish coast plundering goods. In 1593 he obtained a ship from his father, first named Repentance by his mother but changed to Dainty by the Queen. He departed Plymouth, crossed the Atlantic and raided Valparaiso, but was captured by several ships, 1300 Spaniard against his 75 men. He surrendered after the third day after being wounded on the condition his men be set free. He was imprisoned in Peru for 3 years and then in Madrid, where he attempted to escaped but was caught. He was ransomed for  £3,000 in 1602 which his step mother begrudgingly paid. When he return home he was knighted by King James the I, became mayor of Plymouth and its MP in the parliament. Sir Richard Hawkins was a very important man, a solider, navigator, shipbuilder, commander, father, son and employee. He is best known for his voyage to South Africa. Richard Hawkins also discovers the Falkland Islands which he mapped and named Hawkins Maidenland. Hawkins wrote the memories of his first sea trip under the title â€Å"Voiage into the South Sea†, which became the most famous Elizabethan adventure, re-published by the Hakluyt Society and reworked in Charles Kingsleys Westward Ho! He also used three of his own ships in the Armada in which he fought and risked his life and property to help the British won. He also was in England’s politics as a parliament member. He bombarded the Spanish fleets by stealing gold and treasures, enabling England to compete with Spain and supporting his country. Also, when he was captured by Spain he sacrificed himself for his crew. Without Richard sacrifice his crew could have been killed. From the beginning with Richards’s father also being an important mariner, it makes sense that Richard should become a mariner that surpasses his father. From the start of his first time to sea at 22 he never stopped seeking exploration and adventure. Without his contributes to exploration, parliament, the Armada, his novels, and his sacrifices to his men, country and family, the world would not be the same.

Development of the Understanding of Dyslexia

Development of the Understanding of Dyslexia Introduction The following three chapters offer not only an introduction, but an in depth analysis of the current state of the study of Dyslexia today. Much of the information evaluated for this study was based on the preeminent minds in the study of learning disabilities today. It is the responsibility of a curious society to determine the causal and symptomological relationships for a particular disorder prior to its diagnosis. Dyslexia presents a unique challenge to this social responsibility because of a uniquely manifested heterogeneity which is pervasive in many forms. Further research is decidedly required in order to isolate the underlying cause of such an affliction, yet with current medical data and a limited number of scientific studies, this feat remains next to impossible, even one hundred years after its initial recognition. Chapter One When his trembling hand gripped tightly to the pencil and the words began to flow freely, their meaning rushed through his mind; minute synaptic reactions converted thought into impulse and further into written word. When read, however, by a stupefied instructor, it was the letter reversal, in addition to poor, untrained handwriting which brought cause for alarm. Visits with a Neurologist, discussions with a Psychiatrist, all led towards an unfortunate diagnosis: Dyslexia. Introduction The following chapter is designed to offer an in depth history and background for one of the most misunderstood and misdiagnosed affectations in history: Dyslexia. It is only through thorough comprehension of this disorder and the potential affects on youth and adults alike that proper diagnosis and treatment will be initiated. Defining a Theory When theory becomes practice and eventually is predominately a diagnosis, it stands to reason that a clear and effective definition of that theory would aid in discussion with patients and training for educators. However, when a disability necessitates the scientific consensus of hundreds of doctors dealing with similar, yet uniquely defined cases, the theory will flounder, pinned in a net of conflicting case studies and rhetoric. Webster’s Dictionary defines Dyslexia as â€Å"a variable often familial learning disability involving difficulties in acquiring and processing language that is typically manifested by a lack of proficiency in reading, spelling, and writing.†[1] This definition is not particularly enlightening, nor does it further our comprehension of what symptoms or solutions may be present for such a disorder. Pop culture would have us believe that all dyslexics read words backwards, are inwardly frustrated individuals, and are oftentimes lazy in study while uniquely talented in another aspect of life. Yet, with the ambiguous definitions which have punctuated the study of this disorder, it can easily be seen how education in this area is lacking, particularly in terms of diagnosis. â€Å"The term dyslexia comes from the Greek root â€Å"dys† (trouble) and â€Å"lexia† (word).[2] It is easily seen how such a generic definition can lead to great scientific debate, not only in study, but in treatment as well. There is no singular treatment for dyslexia, in fact, this is a lifetime disability where teaching awareness in addition to atypical forms of learning becomes paramount in the normal functionability of the patient. Most common in modern definitions of Dyslexia is that it is a phonological disorder predicated by neurological dysfunction contributing to poor reading, writing, and oftentimes learning abilities. This theory, however, becomes problematic as a variety of scientific studies seek to minimize the extent that cerebral malfunction influences phonological impairment. Through simplification of the diagnosis procedure, tests such as IQ testing become the benchmark for identification dyslexics as opposed to poor readers. It is important to note that dyslexics do not have an intelligence deficiency. Their disorder is directly linked to improper phonological interpretation, and oftentimes, unique strengths arise from within this impairment. The following sections will further explore the preeminent theories behind dyslexia, in addition to extrapolating linked generic theories into cohesive formats by which further understanding of dyslexia will be simplified. Dyslexia: Historical perspective The first case study which endeavored to define dyslexia was recorded in 1872 by a physician, R. Berlin of Stuttgart, Germany. The initial cases of dyslexia were predominately adults who had lost the ability to read, write, or comprehend language in some cases due to severe trauma or head wounds. Early definitions of this disorder invoked use of a more common term aphasic, or a loss of the ability to use or comprehend words. In 1877, A. Kussmaul suggested the theory of â€Å"word blindness† to describe a patient who similar to earlier cases, had lost his ability to read. In 1887, the term alexia was first defined as an inability to comprehend written words by Charcot. All of these predecessors led to the modern term, dyslexia which we use fluidly today. This term was first defined by Bateman in 1890 who had determined a form of verbal amnesia in which a patient had lost his memory of the conventional meaning of language. In 1896, Morgan formulated a revised definition called congenital word blindness, citing a 14-year-old boy who although he functioned on a similar intellectual level with his peers, had a specific difficulty in learning to read. Further comprehension of this disorder surfaced with James Hinshelwood, a surgeon at the Glasgow Eye Infirmary who published a series of articles in the journal â€Å"The Lancet.† These articles dealt more specifically with acquired word blindness than Morgan’s congenital word blindness and after his first experiences with congenital cases in early 1900, Hinshelwood eventually published a book on both forms of word blindness which further defined theories behind the disorders. â€Å"This taxonomic classification system was based upon the performance of the patients when attempting to read. In this regard, Hinshelwood’s formulations and methodology resemble those of contemporary neuropsychology.[3] Hinshelwood’s research led him to create reading guidelines, including a three stage model of learning in which educators could focus their efforts on training students to read proficiently. Part of Hinshelwood’s congenital word blindness related to what he had previously witnessed in adults which were a major trauma or head injury which led to the apparent disorder. His believe was that during the birthing process or at some point during infancy, extreme head trauma or a birth defect had caused the lapse in language abilities, creating the word blindness. Study in the area of reading difficulty continued. In 1925, an American Neurologist named Samuel Orton proposed a theory regarding the specific formation of these disorders. â€Å"According to Orton, reading reversals (e.g. b for d and saw for was) were caused by problems with cerebral dominance in the early stages of reading.†[4] This mirror-image theory was one of the most misconstrued and misunderstood theories of the early twentieth century. By the early seventies, however, the mirror-image theory had been discredited on the basis that while dyslexia affects language functions, it does not seem to affect other visual tasks such as forms of recognition. During the 60’s and 70’s, visual perception and correction of this problem in relation to dyslexia became a debatable theory. â€Å"Marianne Frostig developed a test for visual perception and a remedial training program involving tracing, and copying shapes and patterns.[5]† This test was unsuccessful when paired with dyslexic students and was inappropriately utilized without positive result for some time. In 1962, Herbert Birch proposed the intersensory deficit hypothesis which proposes that because reading utilizes both auditory and visual senses, that there is an innate inability to perform the dual tasks. His theory was also discredited as testing lacked in control mechanisms and an inability to replicate results with consistent reliability plagued Birch and his associates.[6] From these bases of research on dyslexia came a flurry of tests, examinations, theories, discredited scientists, and the debate still continues. Current theories tend to focus on areas of the brain which are abnormally affected by the disorder, but more importantly, research into the techniques required in order to appropriately educate affected individuals has increased. This research, in addition to testing, continues to allow for uniquely afflicted individuals to lead remarkable yet uncured lives. Phonology—From Record to record When dyslexia moves from theory to diagnosis, phonological deficits become measurable symptoms of the disorder. Phonology, or the study and description of the sound changes in a language, can help educators pinpoint and explore specific regions of sound including word pairings and splits. Additionally, it is one of the most affected areas of comprehension relative to dyslexia. â€Å"The amazing discovery is that people systematically ignore certain properties of sounds. They perceive two different sounds as the same sound. We call the stored versions of speech sounds phonemes. Thus phonemes are the phonetic alphabet of the mind. That is, phonemes are how we mentally represent speech; how we store the sounds of words in our memory.† Dyslexia, however, as previously defined, is a disorder in accessing the proper linguistic characteristics as related to reading and writing. Therefore, in extrapolating disability from inability, it is essential to determine whether the child is ph onetically challenged, they have an inability to attach proper synaptic responses to linguistic characteristic, or in a non-dyslexic case, that the problem could be directly related to visual acumen. If there is a possibility that the child has a visual impairment which while serious and requiring further diagnosis and study, it does not decidedly group them into a dyslexic category. â€Å"Overall, studies have shown perceptual deficits: in vision related to impaired motion detection and in phonology related to impaired coding. This impairment is related to symmetry, reversed asymmetry, and lower numbers of neurons in, predominantly, the temporal lobes and visual motion areas of the occipital lobe. Also, the auditory deficits may be closely related to temporal abnormalities that impede speed and accuracy for speech-sound relationships in reading of the planum temporale region, as well as the thalamus near the corpus callosum.†[7] It is this potential brain abnormality which makes this disorder so difficult to define and identifying specifically which deficits contribute directly to the dyslexic tendencies of a child is a most difficult and sometimes impossible process. Additionally, the multitude of theories and definitions of learning disabilities makes the educator’s task of proper identification much more difficult. â€Å"It has been shown that explicit training in phonological awareness can lead to improved word reading; evidence of a reciprocal causal relationship between phonological awareness and reading has also been found.†[8] In assessing potential dyslexics, it is widely held that phonological deficit is one of the most reliable assessors when comparing results from a controlled variety of children. Evaluations of this deficit oftentimes take the place of speed tests, word recognition studies, and testing of verbal fluency. As debate continues about the underlying causal factors of phonological deficit, one powerful theory is that â€Å"cerebellar deficit is the only single explanation of problems in balance, phonology, and speed, and is also one explanation of ‘pure’ phonology/speed problems.†[9] This l ocalized brain failure directly relates many of the predominant symptoms of dyslexia, including combining many different areas of testing and relating them to one overall failure, as opposed to a variety of causes for a multitude of symptoms. Symptoms In order to diagnose and treat such a heterogeneous disorder such as dyslexia, symptomology, or breaking down specific traits and behaviors into repeatable offenses, must be at the forefront of the educator’s investigation. But, when every child’s individual response to the disorder is different, where does one begin to define those unique traits which enable grouping, and therefore, repeatable treatment and disability management? As will be defined in future sections, it is essential to the educator that they are able to differentiate between the textbook dyslexic and the garden variety poor reader. Oftentimes, IQ testing is performed on children to initiate a benchmark for further evaluation of variance from this basis point. Children who exhibit reading variances below the average IQ of the test group cannot be immediately defined as dyslexic. Further investigation involving a variety of controlled examinations must be performed in order to discover the unique sympto ms associated with the particular child’s disability. It must be noted that oftentimes dyslexia is a hidden disorder, primarily because of social pressures placed on children to perform in school. Fear of labeling, coupled with parental disappointment can be a powerful motivator in masking or hiding of dyslexic symptoms. Initial determination of this disorder must be made through observation and recognition of potential warning signs. â€Å"Parents are often aware that their children have some problems with language before they start school. Youngsters with language processing disabilities may be slow in learning to speak, and may use shorter sentences, smaller vocabularies, and poorer grammar than their brothers and sisters did at similar ages.†[10] As symptoms are not easily identified due to lack of visual corroboration, there are a variety of discrepancy principles which are most often utilized for more accurate prognosis. IQ testing will be discussed in detail in further sections, yet, the ability to establish a connection between variances in observed and expected achievement make this form of testing one of the most consistent, yet debated, techniques for initial identification of dyslexic symptoms. Similarly, reading and listening comprehension are often studied in an attempt to determine obvious strengths in one category over the other.[11] Determining that a patient’s reading comprehension is far inferior to his listening does not, however, decidedly diagnose them as dyslexic. This approach must identify the innate deficiency in word identification and contrast those results with alternate discrepancy evaluations. Additionally, the definition of phonological deficiency pervades this model, as dyslexic children can have problems with written and spoken words alike. As dyslexia is clearly a heterogeneous disorder, a variety of symptoms requires varying evaluations, and in both of these discrepancy tests, the symptomology alone does not dictate dyslexia. A third area of discrepancy evaluation relates chronological age to reading age. Yet, historic evaluations of schooling and environmental factors (home environment, access to reading materials, etc) become paramount in determination whether or not the reading proficiency directly correlates to the social environment of the child. Again, it is the predicated evaluation of all apparent and collaborative symptoms which enables accurate diagnosis and appropriate educational tactics. Causality Often confused with symptomology, causality is the identification of the underlying failures contributing directly to the disorder. For dyslexic evaluations, an simplified approach to causality is to determine that a phonological impairment has contributed to an inability to read and write at the same level as their peers. Therefore, treatment tactics will include direct reading training, word recognition instruction, symbolic representation, and intensified reading emphasis. In the next chapter, RTI (responsiveness to intervention) will be discussed as a replacement for the â€Å"wait to fail† approach, which when utilized properly, determines their responsiveness to the training and potentially prevent misdiagnosis. Could the child respond to the phonological training? If there were dramatic improvement through basic teaching tactics which were more localized to poor readers, then perhaps the entire diagnosis of dyslexia could be removed, and focus on reading abilities and f urther instruction would become a priority. However, dyslexia, as previously stated, is a lifetime disability which mandates many changes in lifestyle and learning approach. The underlying causes are irreversible, and proper diagnosis is paramount in determining the best tactics toward normalization. â€Å"The World Federation of Neurology defines dyslexia as a disorder manifested by difficulty in learning to read despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence, and sociocultural opportunity. It is dependent upon fundamental cognitive disabilities which are frequently of constitutional origin.†[12] Directly related to the phonological impairment is a cerebral malfunction or failure in which not only reading and writing abilities are impaired, motor skills including balance can also be affected. In addition to cerebral malfunctions, it is a well known fact that both sides of the brain process and perform different functions as related to thinking: the left side predominantly controls speech, reading, writing, and numeric processing ability; the ride side controls creativity, musical ability, and imagination. â€Å"Mixed hemispheric dominance† is attributed to the cause of improper phoneme reproduction is due to the brain’s hemispheric responses to stim uli.[13] Therefore, the functions normally controlled by the left half of the brain are delegated in part to the right side, an area not typically charged with these particular functions. Dyslexics are often characterized as picture thinkers, or students who tend to think and speak in very imaginative capacities, often formulating speech as though they were painting a picture. In this scenario, the causality of photo-dictation is directly related to a confused hemispheric dominance. It is important, however, to note that assumption of causal relation to dyslexic symptoms can only be validated through intense scientific research and neurological study. Causes of this impairment are readily defined, but oftentimes troublesome in clinical corroboration. Mythological Muddle or Modern Mystery It is the duty and underlying objective of the scientist to investigate all causes and symptoms of a particular disorder in order to determine without a doubt the symbiotic relationship between the two and repeatability of testing procedures with future patients. Therefore, it would stand to reason that as time passes and frequency of variance within investigation techniques subsides, that scientific data would affirm one theory of dyslexia above all others. Unfortunately, the heterogeneity of this disorder has left a lifetime of neurologists without a solid foothold from which to hoist concrete scientific evidence as to the causes and treatments for dyslexia. The most problematic area of the body has proven to be the brain, and for obvious reasons, interpreting its responses to educational stimuli is a difficult and painstaking task. Study aside, cultural mores supply myths which often muddle educated theories regarding dyslexia. One myth as qualified by an ignorant teacher of a dyslexic student was â€Å"well, I mean, it’s one of those things that has been conjured up by pushy parents for their thick or lazy children, quite often both.†[14] These myths affect cultural perception as well as tactics educators explore in relation to future education of clinically diagnosed dyslexics. It is essential to the support and appropriate treatment of dyslexia that the dispelling of common myths becomes a priority. The following represents some of the most prevalent, but certainly not all myths associated with this disorder. Myths: All dyslexics read backwards As previously stated, dyslexia is not simply a â€Å"backwards reading disorder.† While letter and word manipulation is a result of the disorder, not all dyslexics view words backwards. Oftentimes mirrored writing is an effect, yet proper teaching and techniques enable dyslexics to read and write over time as well as non-impaired individuals. Dyslexia only affects reading Discussion of symptomology of this disorder clearly shows that writing, listening, even motor skills are often affected by dyslexia. Phonological impairment does not limit dyslexic symptoms to poor reading alone. The inability to appropriately process and utilize language, words, and letters affects all areas related to these categories. Dyslexics have a poor sense of direction Dyslexics are often grouped into a category of individuals with poor sense of direction, and ones who are often clumsy or inept. While dyslexia can oftentimes cause a directional confusion, it is a trait which is dictated by the unique affectation of a heterogeneous affliction. Dyslexia can be cured Scientific advancements have challenged the confines of the human mind, yet manipulation of the brain, moreover, repair of major cerebral impairments, is as of date an impossibility with relation to dyslexia. Many dyslexics will learn to live normally with their impairment; many have already gone on to become great historical figures, yet curing this disorder is simply a task charged to the neurologists of the future. My parents can read so I am not dyslexic The genetic link between relatives and dyslexia is apparent and proven. The misconception however lies within the idea that genetic correlation is linked directly to the parents. Heredity and dyslexia form a bond within a family’s genetic makeup, enabling the link to come from oftentimes removed relatives, Uncle, Aunt, Grandfather. Dyslexia is a hereditary disorder and further research into a family tree reveals the path of its emergence.[15] Dyslexia, a mystery to scientists and educators for over one hundred years, presents children with challenges unlike other afflictions. The inability to localize the gene or regional affectation which causes dyslexia presents an almost hopeless image of what, in other scenarios, might be considered a gift. It is the unique modifications made by the mind which enable dyslexics to processes other areas of learning more quickly than other students, and this compensation oftentimes more than outweighs the debilitation of a decrease in language comprehension. Personal Affectation—Why Me? Scientific study aside, the human factor relative to living with dyslexia is prevalent and worthy of discussion. A child in an educationally pervasive society with expectations and standards thrust on him on a regular basis would find his inability to read common words not only frustrating but frightening. From a psychological standpoint, abnormality in a very standardized environment causes great confusion among children. Their inability to fully comprehend the situation will often lead to masking tactics in addition to rebellious behavior which carries the potential for misdiagnosis. The perspective of a potential dyslexic is that they will be ridiculed in school settings for their differences and perhaps even placed in remedial classes in order to help them have a full and prosperous education. It is the responsibility of the educator as well as the parents to address this particular affliction, not as an illness but as a gift. Reminding students that a very impressive list of famous and successful dyslexics exists today and that more are added to it yearly allows for a comfort factor which can offset some of the fear. Creating an educational blueprint which navigates the student through the symptoms and adaptations of dyslexia and assists them to define a life of normalcy is a priority. The upcoming chapter will discuss the specific processes which can assist a student in a prosperous and diverse lifestyle in addition to addressing and identifying the unique factors of their disorder which may eventually help neurologists pinpoint the cause of dyslexia. Chapter Two Sitting before his teacher, hands clenched tightly in front of him on the desk, the student waited with anticipation as the cards were raised one at a time. The pictures were familiar, the writing seemed like something he had seen once before but it didn’t make sense. The instructor slowly prompted the wary student, the sounds forming behind tight lips. His first steps towards living with dyslexia had begun. Introduction The following chapter will not only evaluate dyslexia based upon specific traits and the modern techniques utilized to explore and define the disorder, it will explore the potential benefits of choosing each uniquely suited tactic in the attempt to properly diagnose and treat with accuracy. Necessity or Misdiagnosis â€Å"Congratulations, you have dyslexia.† This is not exactly a reasonable statement for a neurologist to make to a grade school child who is afflicted with the malady. Nor can he treat the diagnosis as though he has spelled the end of a normal lifestyle for this frightened adolescent. It is important for educators to note that the process which is undertaken in order to get to this step, the ultimate diagnosis of the disorder, must be recognized, internalized, and practiced on a regular basis in order to avoid unfortunate misdiagnosis. The student who stands on his desk and yells mild obscenities at the top of his lungs will not only gain laughs from his classmates, but will most likely enjoy a trip to the school counselor. Should he appear restless and frustrated as his problems are probed, the counselor will suggest further examination. Eventually, ADD, Attention Deficit Disorder could become the prognosis, and Ritalin the drug of choice for overcoming this unfortunate scenario. And perhaps Ritalin does not work and the school performance continues to falter, then another trip to the physician and another diagnosis, yet a complete absence of alternate thinking regarding the disability is present at this time. The poor spelling and scribbled essays are completely forgotten in exchange for a reprise from destructive and irascible behavior. It is the failure of the teacher to note the extreme inability to read aloud in front of the class and realize that the reaction to his embarrassment is the disruptive nature for which they are medicating. An ability to recognize, diagnose with accuracy, and utilize trained teaching abilities to inspire change and growth are qualities that are lacking in many of today’s teachers. It’s not a failure of their intelligence by any means, nor is it the training they have received; it is that there are simply too many variables from which to accurately diagnose learning disabilities in children. Experience, coupled with comprehension of relevant learning categories is essential to proper dyslexic diagnosis. Family and heredity, as stated before, is essential to understanding the child’s genetic makeup. If there is a history of dyslexia within the family, closer attention can be paid to specific traits which are associated with the disorder than if there were not such congruence. Language skills are additionally a priority, as these abilities are essentially the area in question when formulating a diagnosis. Evaluation of comprehension, word identification, pronunciation and word retrieval are only a few of the basic categories from which to test a child. Reading, aloud and silently should also be tested. Listening to the child and analyzing particular word confusion, in addition to pronunciation issues will allow for important data to be drawn. Additionally, querying the child regarding reading comprehension can give insight into how the child processes the information they are taking in. Spelling and writing are essential as well. Looking for obviously inverted spelling in addition to word mirroring can be essential to the appropriate diagnosis. Handwriting as well becomes a necessary category from which to draw conclusions. Letter formation, balance of lines, spaces, paper alignment, all are paramount to proper evaluation. Memory becomes a category for study, as all time frames should be probed, from long to short term, in addition to visual memory. It is through the mastery of evaluation of these categories, as well as experience with the basic psychology relevant to children of this age and proclivity, that will enable the educator or evaluator to appropriately diagnose and if all else fails, point the student towards the correct diagnosis and treatment center. Phonological Instruction The previously discussed phonological failure contributing to dyslexia warrants a structured approach to therapy and instruction. Nearly unanimously, researchers agree that proper phonological instruction is a priority for all school children, and even more necessitated with children diagnosed with dyslexia. â€Å"The general findings suggest that early and direct teaching of sound-symbol relationships produces better decoding skills than later and less explicit phonics instruction (Clark, 83).†[16] Synthetic Phonics Instruction In this approach to phonological instruction, a specific phoneme is separated and taught to the child prior to blending or inclusion in syllables or entire words. ie. /ph/ is inscribed on cue cards where the student learns to recognize an image of a phone through sight in addition to phoneme. Once this process has been appropriately completed and the student exhibits repeatable comprehension of the relationship, the phoneme is synthesized within words with letters that are already known so that the child may read them. Synthetic relationships are in this way established between objects, letters, and phoneme. Intrinsic Phonics Instruction As suggested by its title, this form of phonetic instruction utilizes complete words, beginning with those that are most often already known to the children. The patients are then encouraged to draw relationships between the letters, practicing phoneme and letter relationship at one time rather than learning segments and then grouping them to create words. One program which has successfully adopted the Synthetic Phonetic approach to dyslexic instruction was initiated by the wife and co-scientist of Samuel Orton in collaboration with her partner Anna Gillingham in 1960. The approach was summarized through the following distinguishing features: It is a direct approach to the study of phonics, presenting

Global Warming: Causes and Effects

Global Warming: Causes and Effects The term â€Å"global warming† is often used synonymously with the term climate change, but the two terms have distinct meanings. Global Warming is a gradual increase in the earth's temperature. Novdia explained that â€Å"global warming refers to the documented historical warming of the Earth's surface, based upon worldwide temperature records that have been maintained by humans since the 1880s† (Global Warming). Global warming is a major crisis in the world today. Three causes of global warming are the greenhouse effect, increase of carbon dioxide emission, and the effects of temperature increase. The greenhouse effect is a primary cause of global warming. It is a gradual rise in temperature in the earth's atmosphere due to the heats absorption from the sun and entrapment of gases, water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, in the air around the earth. An example of this is a bright sunlight will effectively warm an individual’s car on a cold, clear day by the greenhouse effect. The longer infrared wavelengths radiated by sun-warmed objects do not pass readily through the glass. The trap of this energy warms the interior of the vehicle. The trapping of the hot air so that it cannot rise and lose the energy by convection also plays a major role. Stephen Novdia stated, â€Å"The greenhouse effect was discovered by Joseph Fourier in 1824, first reliably experimented on by John Tyndall in 1858, and first reported quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896† (Global Warming). Greenhouse effect then becomes a primary cause of global warming. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions cause global warming. It is gas in the earth’s atmosphere that came from fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are formed by natural resources and are decomposed from buried dead organisms. A study on Carbon dioxide emissions in a magazine article on May 2009 found the following evidence: â€Å"In the 19th century, scientists realized that gases in the atmosphere cause a â€Å"greenhouse effect† which affects the planet's temperature. [The planet’s temperature will increase dramatically by the gases in the atmosphere absorbing the heat. ] These scientists were interested chiefly in the possibility that a lower level of carbon dioxide gas might explain the ice ages of the distant past. At the turn of the century, Svante Arrhenius calculated that emissions from human industry might someday bring a global warming. Other scientists dismissed his idea as faulty. In 1938, G. S. Callendar argued that the level of carbon dioxide was climbing and raising [the] global temperature, but most scientists found his arguments implausible. It was almost by chance that a few researchers in the 1950s discovered that global warming truly was possible. In the early 1960s, C. D. Keeling measured the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere: it was rising fast. Researchers began to take an interest, struggling to understand how the level of carbon dioxide had changed in the past, and how the level was influenced by chemical and biological forces. They found that the gas plays a crucial role in climate change, so that the rising level could gravely affect our future. † (Weart) This magazine article influence Americans to recycle because the article is geared to them. With the CO2 causing the increase in weather, it also causes the increase of the greenhouse effect. The CO2 can affect the climate change and the future of the world if the greenhouse effect increases. Causes of global warming exist and so do the effects. Revkin stated, â€Å"Americans lead in moving to a world where ‘fossil fuels have been largely modified for carbon recycling or replaced by carbon-neutral alternatives. † (Challenges to Both Left and Right on Global Warming) A result of increase of weather are polar ice caps and temperature rising. When the temperature increases, the polar ice caps will melt, causing glaciers to melt as well. Glaciers are made up of fresh frozen water and when they melt into the ocean, which is composed of salt water, the ocean currents will be altered. The result of ocean currents altering will also affect the species that live in the ocean. Some species live in salt water and others live in fresh water, but cannot live in both. The increase of water in the ocean will cause evaporation to increase. The increase of probability and intensity of droughts and heat waves will increase as well. With all the water in the ocean and the weather increasing, it will cause warm water and more hurricanes. Global warming has both causes and effects. It is one of the most major crisis that will affect the world today, yet the most difficult to resolve. If I had a choice, I would make everybody recycle and you use resources. I would also have Americans reduce the Carbon emissions. Even if we stopped emitting greenhouse gases today, the Earth would still be warm by some kind of degree Fahrenheit.

Eyewitness Testimony Essay

The criminal justice systems in Australia and throughout the world rely on evidence to prosecute persons suspected of a crime. Previously, criminal investigators relied upon eyewitness accounts for their investigations though psychological research shows that eyewitness testimony is not always accurate and should not be used in the criminal justice system as a sole piece of evidence (Sangero & Halpert, 2007). Numerous research papers and articles have cautioned the use of eyewitness testimony due to many cases solely basing their verdict from this evidence. In light of DNA evidence, many convicted of a criminal offence have been exonerated of their sentences. The use of identification tests found in numerous papers clarifies why witness testimony can be inaccurate and unreliable. Experiments made throughout the years testing eyewitness accounts delve into factors associating event characteristics, eyewitness characteristics and target characteristics and how they contribute to the re trieval of information from an eyewitness. These factors clarify as to why witness testimony should not be used solely as evidence in the criminal justice system but rather another constituent in identifying the person of interest in a criminal investigation. In 1992 a non for profit organisation was formed to help those convicted and sentenced to a crime they did not commit. The Innocence Project was formed by Barry C. Scheck and Peter J. Neufeld in affiliation with Cardozo school of law at Yeshiva University to help exonerate those found guilty via DNA testing (Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law at Yeshiva University, 1997). According to The Innocence Project, 75% of eyewitness testimony which were used to convict suspected criminals in the United States of America was erroneous in light of DNA testing. In one such case in New Zealand, a man named David Dougherty was found guilty of rape and abduction of a little girl who pleaded against him in the court of law as being the man that raped her (Cleave & Gower, 2012). Mr Dougherty was acquitted of the 1992 rape in 1997 due to the fact that experts finally concluded that there was insufficient DNA evidence to prove beyond a doubt  that he was the perpetrator (Fairfax NZ News, 2009). Although DNA evidence exonerated Mr Dougherty of the crime, many believed he was the perpetrator due to the eyewitness testimony, and expert opinions were clouded due to the publicity of this case. It was only until an overseas expert testified in favour of Mr Dougherty that he was acquitted (Fairfax NZ News, 2009). This case shows the errors made by the victim/eyewitness and how certain she was of the suspect and The Innocence Project has proven that eyewitness testimony is often mistaken. It has been widely documented throughout the decades that mistaken identifications were involved in the majority of cases examined by psychological researchers (Penrod, 2005). Research has suggested that during a police investigation, eyewitnesses would sometimes be subject to view more than one line-up to help identify a suspect (Palmer, Brewer, & Weber, 2010). Early research has cited that more viewings of potential suspects should theoretically improve the accuracy of the eyewitness choosing the offender (Penrod, 2005). Most recent research has found that multiple line-ups can impair subsequent identification accuracy therefore concluding that the more line-ups an eyewitness goes through, the more room for error in choosing the subject in question (Palmer, Brewer, & Weber, 2010). This study focused on post-identification feedback and separated their study into two main areas: confirming feedback and disconfirming feedback to see whether these would affect how the eyewitness will proceed with subsequent line-ups. According to Palmer, Brewer and Weber, Only witnesses who received feedback after an initial correct rejection performed at a level comparable with a single-lineup control group, suggesting that an initial identification test can impair, but not enhance, performance on a second test involving the same culprit (Palmer, Brewer, & Weber, 2010). It is suggested within this research that criminal investigations avoid using multiple line-ups to ensure that more innocent persons of interest are not convicted due to erroneous eyewitness accuracy. In Addition to this research it has also been found that eyewitness errors increase when persons of interest are chosen out of a photo display rather than an actual lineup  (Lindsay & Wells, Improving Eyewitness Identifications From Lineups: Simultaneous Versus Sequential Lineup Presentation, 1985). These errors are believed to have something to do with the person administrating the lineups or photo arrays (Wells, Rydell, & Seelau, 1993) therefore manipulating the eyewitness’ choices in identifying a suspect within a lineup and subsequent lineups (Phillips, McAuliff, Kovera, & Cutler, 1999) as previously found. This error is resolved easily by appointing someone to administer lineups or photo arrays that do not know who the suspect may be (Wells & Bradfeild, 1998). Furthermore, research has found that the longer the time interval between the event and eyewitness account, the likely it is that the eyewitness account will be erroneous (Loftus, Miller, & Burns, 1978). Another factor relating to event characteristics is that of distance. Many studies have shown that distance between the eyewitness and the target (suspect) will have an impact on memory recollection and facial recognition (Lindsay, Semmler, Weber, Brewer, & Lindsay, 2008). In one such experiment, it was concluded that eyewitness recognition deteriorated as the distance between them and the target increased (Wagenaar & van der Schrier, 1996). In most eyewitness testimony, it is up to the eyewitness to recall the distance between them and the target. Previously, the courts relied upon the 15 metre rule: the optimal viewing distance for an eyewitness (Wagenaar & van der Schrier, 1996). Lindsay et al. (2008) suggested to the courts that rather than relying on the 15 metre rule, in general, identifications will decrease with an increase in distance hence it is up to the courts to decide whether the eyewitness accounts are credible or not. Eyewitness characteristics also factor in to the discussion of how reliable eyewitness testimony is in the criminal justice system. According to a research study by Wells & Olsen (2003), gender has very little to do with how well females perform to males in terms of eyewitness identification, although both genders differ in how they view the event/scene. The age of a witness has a major impact on eyewitness identification as children and the elderly were found to perform poorly in relation to young adults when experiments were conducted (Wells & Olson, 2003). Another factor included into the eyewitness characteristics is that of race. It has been thoroughly investigated and concluded that people are better at identifying facial feat ures of their own race than those of other races (Meissner & Brigham, 2001). This data is useful for those areas  in which are culturally the same but for multicultural locations, namely Australia; it would have little significance the testimony could not be verified unless there was other incriminating evidence against the suspect. One suppressor of facial recognition is that of a weapon. A weapon is believed to reduce the ability of an eyewitness to correctly identify a suspect due to the attention been drawn from the perpetrators face towards the weapon/object (Steblay, 1992). In the court of law, this aspect of whether the eyewitness paid much attention to facial features to be able to correctly identify a suspect becomes somewhat of an issue. Eyewitness testimony is â€Å"self-report† and cannot be checked or cross referenced with other facts as it is purely psychological and based on how well the eyewitness believes they have retained sufficient facial recognition (Wells & Quinlivan, 2009). The confidence and certainty of an eyewitness has been frequently admissible in the criminal courts and the criminal justice system has previously relied upon the eyewitness assessing his/her own psychological capabilities. This has been thoroughly researches as being certainty verse accuracy (Wells & Quinlivan, 2009). In the majority of the research conducted testing this, it has been found that the eyewitness certainty has a moderate relationship with accuracy (Penrod, 2005) therefore the criminal justice system cannot prove whether the eyewitness testimony is mistaken or correct. Finally there is the factor of target characteristics. As previously stated, facial recognition is more accurate when of the same race. Another factor though is that of distinctiveness and whether the target (suspect) has a recognizable face. It has been research that very attractive or very unattractive targets are easier to recognize than average looking faces (Wells & Olson, 2003). Changes in facial characteristics also play a role in whether an eyewitness can recall what they saw. Changes in the face that are of natural occurrence, such as hairstyle, and disguises can dramatically affect recognition(Wells & Olson, 2003). In terms of whether these types of eyewitness accounts are to be used in the criminal justice system is simple as a suspect should not be convicted solely on eyewitness testimony but be used as a resource with other evidence which may incriminate the person of interest (Sangero & Halpert, 2007). Psychological research shows that eyewitness testimony is not always accurate; therefore it should not be used in the criminal justice  system solely as a piece of evidence. To be able to convict and sentence a suspect, in the interest of the courts other evidence must substantiate such claims of guilt. Factors such as event characteristics, eyewitness characteristics and target characteristics explained in this paper show that eyewitness testimony cannot be used as reliable evidence. The studies in this paper clearly show that if there is a reasonable doubt in eyewitness testimony then it should not be used as a basis to convict a person of a crime but rather used as a constituent for furt her investigations of a suspect. List of References Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law at Yeshiva University. (1997). The Innocence Project. Retrieved July 14, 2012, from http://www.innocenceproject.org/about/ Cleave, L., & Gower, P. (2012). 10 Years of Guilt over for rape victim. (N. Herald, Editor) Retrieved July 14, 2012, from http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=3504996 Fairfax NZ News. (2009, March 07). Falsely imprisoned: David Dougherty’s story. Retrieved July 14, 2012, from http://www.stuff.co.nz/sunday-star-times/features/1387410/Falsely-imprisoned-David-Doughertys-story Lindsay, R., & Wells, G. L. (1985). Improving Eyewitness Identifications From Lineups: Simultaneous Versus Sequential Lineup Presentation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70(3), 556-564. Lindsay, R., Semmler, C., Weber, N., Brewer, N., & Lindsay, M. R. (2008). How Variations in Distance Affect Eyewitness Reports and Identification Accuracy. Law and Human Behaviour, 32, 526-535. Loftus, E. F., Miller, D. C., & Burns, H. J. (1978). Semantic Integration of Verbal Information Into Visual Memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4, 19-31. Meissner, C., & Brigham, J. C. (2001). Thirty years of investigating the own-race bias in memory for faces: meta-analytic review. Psychology, Public Policy and Law, 7(1), 3-35. Palmer, M. A., Brewer, N., & Weber, N. (2010). Postidentification Feedback Affects Subsequent Eyewitness Identification Performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 16(4), 387-398. Penrod, S. (2005). Eyewitness. In L. E. Sullivan, M. R.

A Brief Guide to Modernization Theory

A Brief Guide to Modernization Theory Modernization theory emerged in the 1950s as an explanation of how the industrial societies of North America and Western Europe developed. The theory argues that societies develop in fairly predictable stages through which they become increasingly complex. Development depends primarily on the importation of technology as well as a number of other political and social changes believed to come about as a result. Overview of Modernization Theory Social scientists, primarily of white European descent, formulated modernization theory during the mid-twentieth century. Reflecting on a few hundred years of history in North America and Western Europe, and taking a positive view of the changes observed during that time, they developed a theory that explains that modernization is a process that involves industrialization, urbanization, rationalization, bureaucracy, mass consumption, and the adoption of democracy. During this process, pre-modern or traditional societies evolve into the contemporary Western societies that we know today. Modernization theory holds that this process involves  increased availability and levels of formal schooling, and the development of mass media, both of which are thought to foster democratic political institutions. Through the process of modernization transportation and communication become increasingly sophisticated and accessible, populations become more urban and mobile, and the extended family declines in importance. Simultaneously, the importance of the individual in economic and social life increases and intensifies. Organizations become bureaucratic as the  division of labor  within society grows more complex, and as it is a process rooted in scientific and technological rationality,  religion declines in public life. Lastly, cash-driven markets take over as the primary mechanism through which goods and services are exchanged. As it is a theory conceptualized by Western social scientists, it is also one with a capitalist economy at its center. Cemented as valid within Western academia, modernization theory has long been used as a justification for implementing the same kinds of processes and structures in places all over the world that are considered under- or undeveloped as compared with Western societies. At its core are the assumptions that scientific progress, technological development and rationality, mobility, and economic growth are good things and are to be constantly aimed for. Critiques of Modernization Theory Modernization theory has had its critics from the start. Many scholars, often people of color and those from non-Western nations, have pointed out over the years that modernization theory fails to account for the way Western reliance on colonization, slave labor, and theft of land and resources provided the wealth and material resources necessary for the pace and scale of development in the West (see postcolonial theory for extensive discussions of this). It cannot be replicated in other places because of this, and it  should not  be replicated in this way. Others, like critical theorists including members of the Frankfurt School, have pointed out that Western modernization is premised on the extreme exploitation of workers within the capitalist system, and that the toll of modernization on social relations has been great, leading to widespread social alienation, a loss of community, and unhappiness. Still, others critique modernization theory for failing to account for the unsustainable nature of the project, in an environmental sense, and point out that pre-modern, traditional, and indigenous cultures typically had much more environmentally conscious and symbiotic relationships between people and the planet. Some point out that elements and values of traditional life need not be completely erased in order to achieve a modern society​ and point to Japan as an example.

Free Essays on American Government

America as we know it includes a vast network of representative governments. During the colonial period of early America, Virginia was the first to introduce a representative assembly. This first glimpse of democracy influenced the shape of America today. It eventually caused the colonies to drift away from monarchial England, and to establish a democratic government. Ironically, from this government, slavery and racism sprouted. In an attempt to make Virginia a more pleasant place to live, the governor was instructed to create an assembly with the power to make laws. The assembly included two members from each plantation to serve as burgesses, or representatives. Convening in 1619 it became the first colonial, representative body (p.13). This was a significant step in the formation of America. A group of men representing the residents of a particular land would make laws that were meant for them. This was democracy at its earliest stage in America. Everywhere one goes today in America, there is democracy. Whether a church council, school club or the state general assembly, a representative group is always present. Democracy shapes America. One could view the first democratic group responsible for today's freedom. This was the assembly formed by George Yeardly (p.13). Perhaps, if the Virginia Company had not instructed the governor to establish an assembly, the idea of democracy might not have instilled into the minds of the colonists. Surely, without this first appearance, it is questionable that an idea suppressed for centuries under the English monarchy would surface anywhere else. Moreover, it led the way for other settlements to adopt a similar code. Another way the representative body shaped America was slavery. Most representatives approved slavery and practiced it. The early burgesses of the Virginian assembly received land as their pay wages (p.14). They needed people to work their newly acquired lands. Therefore, inde... Free Essays on American Government Free Essays on American Government America as we know it includes a vast network of representative governments. During the colonial period of early America, Virginia was the first to introduce a representative assembly. This first glimpse of democracy influenced the shape of America today. It eventually caused the colonies to drift away from monarchial England, and to establish a democratic government. Ironically, from this government, slavery and racism sprouted. In an attempt to make Virginia a more pleasant place to live, the governor was instructed to create an assembly with the power to make laws. The assembly included two members from each plantation to serve as burgesses, or representatives. Convening in 1619 it became the first colonial, representative body (p.13). This was a significant step in the formation of America. A group of men representing the residents of a particular land would make laws that were meant for them. This was democracy at its earliest stage in America. Everywhere one goes today in America, there is democracy. Whether a church council, school club or the state general assembly, a representative group is always present. Democracy shapes America. One could view the first democratic group responsible for today's freedom. This was the assembly formed by George Yeardly (p.13). Perhaps, if the Virginia Company had not instructed the governor to establish an assembly, the idea of democracy might not have instilled into the minds of the colonists. Surely, without this first appearance, it is questionable that an idea suppressed for centuries under the English monarchy would surface anywhere else. Moreover, it led the way for other settlements to adopt a similar code. Another way the representative body shaped America was slavery. Most representatives approved slavery and practiced it. The early burgesses of the Virginian assembly received land as their pay wages (p.14). They needed people to work their newly acquired lands. Therefore, inde...

Museum research paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Museum research paper - Essay Example It is based on the passion with abstract art and the first record abstract paint of Wassily that he is considered the father of abstract art (Varnedoe 2006, p15). The painting ‘Untitled Improvisation-1914’ is one of Wassily’s painting work in abstract with depth and meaning in the use of colours and lines. It is a more refined and developed piece of art in a series that emerge from about 1906. The painting is done during the onset of World War I, a very important aspect in understanding the theme colors and the messages conveyed by the picture. The Nazis of Germany were actively involved in the war, a war of race, and so Wassily, who was a professor, was then forced to move back to his home country (Düchting, 2008, p58). This information forms the background of the abstract painting, with no particular object painted but nonetheless, rich in internal beauty and spiritual understanding as Wassily himself described Art. The artist Wassily had a special approach to art which was very unique and independent, only witnessed among those who appreciate abstract art (Flux, 2002, p42). He was devoted to inner beauty of art work and had spiritual desire for his artistic impressions. This was achieved by colour as can be seen in this painting. The circumstance inspiring Wassily to paint ‘Untitled Improvisation III, 1914’ is the troubles of the war era. This is indicated by the extensive use of black paint on the background. From the museum however, explanations are given as to why the painting was by oil paint on cardboard, the original material. Wassily, in painting this art piece, was inspired by the concept of music as in the paintings before. He believed that painting was like composing music and so was to communicate messages in a sequential manner so as to get it across by use of colours and shadings of various thicknesses (Bill, Max, and

Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 32

Essay Example it as well; there are times when it helps man and other times when it becomes man’s enemy because it replaces the personal input he would have in his work otherwise. Man becomes divorced from his own work, while some even lose their livelihood to these machines as well. John Paul II further went onto state that it turns man into nothing but a slave. The late pope called for more harmony between workers in this section. It was the pope’s point of view that capitalism and labor were at odds with each other and this conflict was born from the industrial developments that took place in the western world. This conflict illustrated itself in the values found in liberalism and Marxism. He places more emphasis on the importance of labor than capital. He sees labor as essential to driving work, where as capital is only a mere tool. He also talks about property and the church’s stand on the principle of right. Here, the church disagrees not just with Marxist ideas that promote collectivism, but also the liberalistic ideas of capitalism. Human rights that come within the circumference of one’s work are the very basic rights that are allotted to a person. The Pope outlined unemployment as a great social problem, which didn’t just break down the social fabric through economics, but also perpetuated weak morality. He wrote against one-sided centralization by the authorities that left many out of jobs. He referred to agricultural work and how it had its own dignified way. Work has to be organized in a way that suits a person and their life. Demographics need to be taken into account such as a person’s age and gender etc. Women, according to John Paul II, should be allotted jobs that fit them without prejudice; but they must avail jobs without creating problems for their families. He also emphasized on the importance of perks and benefits, along with time off from work so that workers do not burn out. Unions are of the utmost importance because they can ensure that